The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations in Promoting and Monitoring the Enforcement of International Law Against Whaling

Abstract

The international legal framework on anti-whaling, mainly established under the International Whaling Commission and the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, has imposed a moratorium on commercial whaling. However, enforcement remains limited due to structural loopholes, notably the “scientific whaling” exception and the objection procedure, which weakens the binding force and level of compliance. In this context, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have emerged as influential actors, helping to fill enforcement gaps through two principal models of action: policy advocacy and protest, and direct intervention at sea. This article examines this dual role from the perspective of international law, focusing on case studies of Greenpeace and Sea Shepherd Conservation Society operating in the Southern Ocean. Despite facing significant legal controversies, NGO activities have contributed to shaping normative development and strengthening compliance within international environmental governance.