From Prohibition to Regulation: Socio-Economic Determinants of Cannabis Production in Orakzai District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Abstract

Cannabis cultivation has been the backbone of the rural economy for decades in Orakzai District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan, despite it being prohibited. The region is moving towards regulated medicinal and industrial cannabis cultivation after the enactment of the Cannabis Control and Regulatory Authority (CCRA) Act 2024 and the KP Cannabis Cultivation Rules 2025. However, little empirical research is available on the local community response to this policy shift. This qualitative interpretivist study is guided by Rational Choice Theory and addresses the socio-economic factors influencing cannabis cultivation, barriers to the adoption of legal alternatives, and perceptions of government support. Sixteen purposively selected farmers, agricultural labourers, tribal elders, health professionals, policymakers and law enforcement officials were interviewed using semi-structured interviews. Data were analysed using Braun and Clarke’s (2006) reflexive thematic analysis. Braun and Clarke’s reflexive thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. Three themes emerged, namely, cannabis cultivation as a rational livelihood strategy; structural constraints on the viability of legal crops; and institutional uncertainty due to limited awareness and implementation of the new regulatory framework. The findings indicate that legal reform alone is not sufficient to reduce illicit cultivation without access to licensing, rural infrastructure, livelihood support and effective community engagement. This study adds to our understanding of policy transition and illicit crop economies in marginalised rural settings.